Pedestrian Impact Accident Investigations
The determination of the point of impact between
the vehicle and the pedestrian can be sometimes complicated due to a lack of
evidence at the scene of the accident. In many instances, the vehicle trajectory
from the point of impact to point of rest is indeterminate due to a lack of
evidence. The reaction of the vehicle driver to the impact may be post-impact
and therefore there are no tire marks to mark an approximate area of impact.
In the instances where there are tire marks large
variations in the perception/reaction times for various drivers of various
ages/experience/fatigue levels/etc. make any definitive determination of the
point of impact relative to the start of visible tire marks unreliable.
To demonstrate some of the variability possible in
the location and extent of tire marks, a brief review of related driver
perception/reaction studies is in order:
In 1974, Rice & Dell’Amico (Ref.
34) found that for a surprise intrusion (a barrel being thrown in
front an unsuspecting vehicle during testing at the Calspan test facilities)
that:
The Mean reaction
time was 0.65 seconds ( time between ejection of the barrel and first evidence
of driver avoidance action, either steering or braking) ( Range of response
times was 0.40 to 1.70 seconds )
In 75 % of the
cases the first reaction was pure braking
Out of 34 tests, only one individual successfully
avoided the object.
In 1989, Olson (Ref. 35) reported that for
“surprise” events that the perception/reaction time ranged from 0.80 to 1.8
seconds with an apparent approximate 85% percentile of 1.4 seconds.
In 1990, Araki (Ref 36) studied response
times for individuals using as a test device a driving simulator. The recorded
responses to a pedestrian suddenly darting across the road were that:
90% (29 out of 32 drivers) acted to avoid the
pedestrian
62% steered
86% braked
48% both steered and braked
A review and bibliography related to perception/reaction time values and studies
can be found in reference 37.
Another item to consider is the meaning of tire
mark evidence. The investigator must realize that the different braking systems
on various vehicles may begin leaving marks at different times after the
application of the brakes. For example, a common misconception is that due to
the increased use of anti-lock brakes on vehicles that much of the normal
pre-impact tire mark evidence will be reduced. Depending on the design of the
braking system used in conjunction with the antilock braking system, the
antilock brake will begin making marks in a manner quite similar to standard
braking systems. However, with the anti-lock brakes the vehicle will continue to
respond to steering even while full braking is applied. The pulsing action of
the antilock braking system does not prevent the tires from heating up and
leaving rubber deposits on the roadway during heavy braking.
Also with respect to braking, the accident
reconstructionist should be aware that generally the speed of the vehicle at the
time of brake application is generally as much as 10% greater than
the speed of the vehicle once it begins leaving tire marks (Ref. 38) (
This if of particular importance when considering traveling speed from skid to
stop calculations based on skidmark length).
Therefore, to attempt to determine the approximate
point of impact in a pedestrian/vehicle impact, a detailed examination of the
accident scene should be performed. The first task should be to determine if
there are any “scuff” marks and/or other items of evidence to indicate the
location of the initial point of impact. Shoe “scuff” marks are left when a shoe
with weight on it is rapidly accelerated to the speed of the vehicle. The shoe
may leave a scrape or transfer of materials at the point of impact. Likewise for
pedestrians in other than standing positions, (kneeling, laying, etc.) transfers
of fibers from clothing may occur on the ground as the occupant is accelerated
to the velocity of the vehicle.
The path that the vehicle
traveled should be carefully examined to determine if there are any items of
evidence to indicate a point of impact.
Many times pedestrians may jump up in the air at
the instance of impact and therefore not leave any “scuff” marks. In these
instances the investigator should try to determine the probable pre-impact path
of the pedestrian from witnesses to the accident and/or the scene layout.
The investigator should then locate and measure the
locations of any other debris, the location of any landing areas, and the
location of the final positions of rest of the pedestrian and vehicle.
The speed of a pedestrian is determined by the
distance traveled, which may include a distance traveled rolling and/or sliding
on the ground subsequent to landing. The speed required to “throw” vs. the speed
required to “throw” and slide to a given distance may vary substantially.
Therefore if there is documentable evidence to determine the actual landing area
then it should be included in the investigative file for use in the
reconstruction.
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Pedestrian Impact Accident
Reconstruction